The United States North Korean Human Rights Act (NKHRA) and the Canadian Human Rights in North Korea Act (M-94): A Brief Overview and the Way Forward
The United States North Korean Human Rights Act (NKHRA) and the Canadian Human Rights in North Korea Act (M-94):
A Brief Overview and the Way Forward
Greg Scarlatoiu
L.S.
Research Intern, HRNK
Introduction
North Korea, a totalitarian country, is rife with human rights abuses. The entity responsible for North Korea’s human rights and humanitarian crisis is the Kim family regime, acting in collusion with the other three pillars of North Korea’s resilient and ruthless dictatorship: The Korean Workers’ Party (KWP), security agencies including the Ministry of State Security (MSS), the Ministry of Social Safety (MSS), and the Military Security Command (MSC) as well as the Korean People’s Army (KPA). Taking advantage of its isolation from the rest of the world—the North Korean government is consistently secretive about North Korea’s inner workings, whether social, economic, or political—the country has deprived its citizens of the most basic of human rights.[1] In response to North Korea’s treatment of its people, the international community has taken action to address the human rights issues in the country, with countries sending humanitarian aid to North Korea and bringing up the abuses at international conventions or through detailed reports.[2] Among the two countries committed to combating the North Korean human rights crisis are the United States and Canada. One way the United States has contributed to fighting the regime’s abuses is by signing into law the North Korean Human Rights Act (NKHRA) in 2004, an Act that directs the government to carry out various undertakings to address North Korea’s human rights issues.[3] The Act expired in 2022 and has not been reauthorized since, despite congressional efforts to revive it.[4] While Canada has not signed an Act concerning North Korean human rights, the House of Commons in 2023 put forward a motion called M-94, or the Human Rights in North Korea Act, which has yet to become a bill, with the potential of becoming law. The aim of this paper is to compare the US NKHRA and the Canadian Human Rights in North Korea Act. The paper first explains the various human rights abuses that the North Korean regime inflicts upon its citizens. The paper next provides each Act’s history and background, then states the status of each Act. The paper then compares the effectiveness with which each Act’s directions on documentation, refugee assistance, and humanitarian aid are carried out, with the assumption that Canada’s Act may become law. The paper then explains how the geopolitical situation and interactions between the countries involved affect the implementation of each Act, again with the assumption that Canada’s Act will have been passed. The paper concludes by recommending how each Act can be better implemented to remedy North Korea’s ever deepening human rights crisis.
North Korea’s Human Rights Crisis
While the list of all the rights that North Koreans have been denied is extensive, the three main freedoms that citizens lack are movement, expression, and religion. North Koreans do not have freedom of movement—both domestically and internationally—because domestic travel and departing the country without regime approval are considered crimes.[5] In order to move from one province to another or to leave the country altogether, citizens are required to receive special permission from the government. Cases of approved leave are rare: diplomats may operate outside under strict monitoring, elite students may be permitted to study abroad, and laborers may be sent to work in a foreign factory.[6] Otherwise, a citizen who is caught crossing North Korea’s border can face inhumane punishment including forced labor, imprisonment in a political prison camp or a reeducation through labor camp, or even execution. Torture, sexual assault, and verbal and psychological abuse are common in political prisons.[7] In 2020, during the Covid-19 outbreak, as part of the government’s crackdown on citizens’ movement, the regime ordered its border guards to “shoot on sight” if they saw people attempting to cross to another country, whether that country be China or South Korea (for refugees, often referred to as “defectors,” the most common route of escape is China, since the Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) between North and South Korea has too heavy a military presence to secretly cross).[8] North Koreans have no freedom of expression, and criticizing the government is a punishable crime.[9] The regime heavily emphasizes fierce loyalty to the government and to the Kim family (Kim Il-sung, Kim Jong-il, and the current supreme leader, Kim Jong-un), strictly monitoring people’s political activity through extreme ideological indoctrination, surveillance, control, coercion, and punishment.. One such means of control is the in-min-ban system, in which ordinary citizens monitor one another’s political behavior and report those who are suspicious of being opposed to the regime.[10] Moreover, consuming foreign content such as South Korean dramas or American news is deemed rebellious and thus strictly prohibited.[11] Punishments for those convicted of political dissent include forced labor, imprisonment in a political prison camp, or even execution.[12] North Koreans have no freedom of religion because North Korea is deeply reliant on a cult of personality, and therefore North Koreans are allowed to worship only the Kim family.[13] In addition to the lack of these three freedoms, North Koreans are subjected to deep and consistent indoctrination, so that the people develop a strong sense of devotion to the regime and to the Kim family.[14] In fact, loyalty is so stressed that North Korea’s Songbun/caste system is built upon it, with the most loyal citizens being of the highest caste.[15]
The US NKHRA: History and Background
The 2004 US NKHRA was signed during a time when the international community was deeply alarmed by the human rights atrocities that the North Korean government was committing against its people. The Arduous March of the mid-1990s, a devastating period in which approximately one million North Koreans died of starvation, shocked governments and human rights organizations worldwide.[16] The famine had occurred primarily due to the North Korean regime’s mismanagement of its food rationing system and foreign aid.[17] Despite the pervasive nature of poverty and malnourishment, the government forbade people from leaving the country, and people had to keep quiet about the regime’s role in the famine. However, the days of the great famine also marked a time when more North Koreans managed to escape the country, against all odds. Many of them became important witnesses in the outside world, testifying before the UN and government agencies worldwide. The devastating effects of the famine continued into the 21st century. Sponsored by Representative James Leach, the US NKHRA was introduced in the House of Representatives as a bill, H.R. 4011, on March 23, 2004.[18] The bill was passed by the House on July 21, 2004, and was subsequently passed by the Senate on September 28, 2004.[19] Finally, the bill was signed into law by President George W. Bush on October 18, 2004.[20] Originally with a four-year authorization, the Act was extended multiple times after four years of its implementation, being reauthorized in 2008, 2012, and 2018.[21] The reauthorization in 2018 extended the Act to 2022, after which the Act was not reauthorized again.[22] The North Korean Human Rights Reauthorization Act of 2023, sponsored by Representative Young Kim, was passed by the House in 2024 but not brought to a vote by the Senate, failing when the congressional session of 2024 concluded without the Senate’s voting.[23]
The original NKHRA of 2004 states that it aims to “promote respect for and protection of fundamental human rights in North Korea” and “to promote a more durable humanitarian solution to the plight of North Korean refugees.”[24] The Act also declares that “the human rights of North Koreans should remain a key element in future negotiations between the United States, North Korea, and other concerned parties in Northeast Asia.”[25] After listing the numerous human rights abuses carried out by the North Korean regime, the Act directs the US government to take specific actions toward combating those abuses.[26] The Act emphasizes the dissemination of foreign information in North Korea, establishing a goal of “12-hour-per-day broadcasting to North Korea.”[27] The Act also states that “the President shall appoint a special envoy for human rights in North Korea… to coordinate and promote efforts to improve respect for… human rights.”[28] To ensure that humanitarian aid ends up in the hands of the intended beneficiaries, the Act calls for transparent, monitored humanitarian aid.[29] Concerning the protection of North Korean defectors, the Act states that North Korean asylum seekers should not be considered citizens of South Korea when being considered for refugee status.[30] The Act also recognizes the “significant” role that the United Nations plays in addressing North Korea’s human rights issues.[31] Regarding the countless North Korean defectors hiding in China, the Act also urges the Chinese government to fulfill the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees by allowing the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) to have full access to defectors in China instead of refouling captured refugees to North Korea.[32] The Act also specified that the President was authorized to spend $2,000,000 from 2005 to 2008 on funding “programs that promote human rights, democracy, rule of law, and the development of a market economy in North Korea.”[33] For the assistance of North Korean escapees, the President was authorized to spend $20,000,000 from 2005 to 2008.[34] While the amount of money dedicated toward the former has remained the same across the different reauthorizations (including the failed 2023 Act), the money meant for assisting North Korean escapees has been significantly reduced since the 2008 reauthorization: $5,000,000.[35]
M-94, or the Human Rights in North Korea Act: History and Background
M-94, or the Human Rights in North Korea Act, was placed on notice by Member of Parliament (MP) Judy Sgro on September 14, 2023.[36] The aim of M-94 for the motion itself—an Act concerning the human rights of North Koreans—is to be signed.[37] There are many overlaps between the US NKHRA and the motion put forward by the Canadian House of Commons. Similar to the US NKHRA, Canada’s Act directs the Canadian government to “create the position of Special Envoy on Human Rights in North Korea,” and the envoy would keep track of the human rights crisis—including the political prison camps—in North Korea and “[monitor] and [report] on the situation of North Korean defectors.”[38] Also like the US NKHRA, the Canadian Act calls for “funding and support for non-governmental organizations that promote freedom, human rights, democracy and the rule of law in North Korea.”[39] The Act requires the Foreign Affairs Minister to regularly make reports on the human rights violations that happen within North Korea, on how accessible the services of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees are for North Korean defectors in China, and Canadian policy related to North Korean defectors, including asylum seekers.[40]
The Current Status of the US NKHRA
The US NKHRA has not been renewed since the Act expired in 2022.[41] As mentioned in a previous paragraph, the US North Korean Human Rights Reauthorization Act was signed by the House of Representatives in 2023, but the Act ultimately failed when the Senate took no action to put the Act to a vote.[42]
The Current Status of M-94, the Human Rights in North Korea Act
“M-94” indicates that the Human Rights in North Korea Act is a motion, which is different from a bill.[43] While a bill has the potential to become law, a motion is unable to become law, serving mostly as a means for MPs to put forth proposals.[44] If the majority of MPs were to vote in favor of the motion, the MPs would then formally request the government to introduce a Human Rights in North Korea Act.[45] Now a bill, the Act would have to pass three readings by the House of Commons and three readings by the Senate and receive royal assent from the Governor General in order to become law.[46] In short, there are numerous processes that the motion must undergo in order to gain the same status as a functional US NKHRA.
A Comparison of the Successes and Failures of the US NKHRA and of M-94 With Respect to Documentation, Refugee Assistance, and Humanitarian Aid
As mentioned in previous paragraphs, documentation, refugee assistance, and humanitarian aid are important aspects of both Acts. While the United States has historically accomplished much with respect to the documentation of the North Korean human rights crisis, the current priorities of the US administration have caused documentation efforts to be severely reduced. Specifically, The US Department of State’s Annual Human Rights Report of 2024, the most recent of such reports, was six months late and approximately twice shorter than the 2023 report.[47] Overall, the report focused less on each country’s human rights issues than on each country’s relations with the US administration.[48] The section on North Korea was around half the length of the section in the previous report, and the section avoided discussion topics that criticized North Korea, such as omitting the following sentence, which had been part of the previous report: “North Koreans cannot choose their government through free and fair elections and no opposition parties are allowed.”[49] Secretary of State Marco Rubio, while previously having been a key political supporter of the implementation and reauthorization of the NKHRA as well as a staunch promoter of North Korean human rights, now seems to be focused on other important foreign policy priorities.[50] Furthermore, the United States Agency for Global Media (USAGM) has been dismantled, resulting in the termination or severe limitation of funding for various broadcasting companies, including major broadcasters such as Radio Free Asia (RFA) and Voice of America (VOA), which both gave detailed reports on the human rights situation in North Korea.[51]
While Canada does not produce annual reports like the United States, it has also documented—or supported the documentation of—the human rights violations of the North Korean regime.[52] For instance, Parliamentary committees have released reports on North Korea’s human rights crisis, one of the most prominent being The Forgotten Many, the Senate’s report on the North Korean regime’s abuses.[53] Furthermore, Canada regularly backs North Korean human rights resolutions put forward by the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) and the Human Rights Council (HRC).[54]
With regards to refugee assistance, the United States has accepted a very low number of North Korean defectors over the course of the past two decades: only around two hundred and fifty.[55] While it is true that most escapees resettle in South Korea, the process for an escapee to be granted asylum in the United States involves longer security screenings, interviews, and processing time, consequently causing the asylum seekers to withdraw their applications and seek South Korea for more immediate support.[56] On the other hand, HanVoice, an independent North Korean human rights advocacy organization, has partnered with the Canadian government and has established a private sponsorship program, a world-first initiative that pairs defectors with sponsors who support the escapees for a full year or longer.[57]
Official bilateral humanitarian aid from the United States to North Korea has been on the decline.[58] Since 2009, the United States government had provided little to no aid to North Korea, and although aid finally resumed in 2024 with the help of NGOs, the amount of aid that has been shipped to North Korea has been insufficient for the malnourished people in North Korea.[59] That said, one must understand that, pursuant to Public Law 480 (PL 480), bilateral aid is based on need and urgency. It is very difficult to make the case for bilateral aid to North Korea while the Kim family regime is diverting resources toward its nuclear and missile program, sacrificing the human security and human rights of its people to build its tools of death. The de facto dismantlement of USAID has also meant that humanitarian organizations were rather seriously affected, as many of these organizations’ programs relied on funds from USAID.[60] While Canada does not send aid directly to the North Korean government, Canada utilizes multilateral partnerships to deliver humanitarian aid to North Korea.[61] The UN World Food Programme (WFP) and UNICEF, for example, are valuable partners of Canada that deliver North Korea Canada’s aid.[62] In total, Canada has provided approximately $40.4 million (US$29,143,954) to contribute to international humanitarian assistance for North Korean citizens.[63]
How the Geopolitical Rift Between Status Quo Powers and Revisionist Powers Affects the Implementation of the US NKHRA and M-94
The geopolitical rift between status quo powers, such as the United States and Canada, and the revisionist powers, such as Russia, China, Cuba, and Venezuela, heavily and negatively impacts the implementation of the US NKHRA and of M-94 if it were a law. While the United States and Canada have consistently been in opposition to North Korea’s nuclear weapons and human rights abuses, imposing various sanctions on North Korea and providing North Korean citizens with both direct and indirect humanitarian assistance, revisionist powers—especially Russia and China, politically powerful countries that are closely allied with North Korea—have been complicit in the continuation of North Korea’s human rights abuses. In 2024, for example, Russia vetoed a resolution to renew the mandate of the UN panel of experts that monitored sanctions placed on North Korea, and China abstained from voting.[64] With North Korea currently sending its own soldiers to fight in the ongoing Russo-Ukrainian War, supporting the Russian war of aggression, the alliance between North Korea and Russia has been reinforced further.[65] Although China is legally bound by the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, it has blatantly violated the Convention by refusing to recognize North Korean defectors as refugees and forcefully repatriating those it apprehends to North Korea.[66] Despite the inhumane punishment—torture, abuse, even execution—that awaits a returned defector, the Chinese government repatriates the North Koreans nevertheless. In creating a hostile environment for North Korean escapees, an environment in which they could be caught, refouled, and tortured in political prison camps at any moment, China is directly impeding progress in addressing North Korea’s human rights crisis.
Recommendations for Better Implementation of the US NKHRA and M-94
The first step toward better implementation is the reauthorization of the US NKHRA, as the Act is long overdue for renewal. Restoring funding for broadcasters including RFA and VOA to effectively document the most recent updates on North Korea’s human rights situation and to disseminate foreign information in North Korea would also be a most desirable step. The US government may also consider providing more funding for its refugee assistance programs, so that more North Korean defectors are able to resettle in the United States as refugees. The US administration could also consider re-establishing USAGM or creating a similar entity, as an organization instrumental in the promotion of North Korean human rights. In close collaboration with Canada and other like-minded democracies, the United States should continue to urge the Chinese government to abide by its obligations under the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees and stop refouling escapees to North Korea.
Similar to the US NKHRA, Canada’s M-94 must become law in order to be effective. Meanwhile, Canada would ideally continue expanding the pilot program it is organizing together with HanVoice and other organizations. Canada must also continue to partner with the United States and other responsible UN member states in urging China to halt its repatriation practices. In addition, the Parliamentary committees may consideer publishing more reports on North Korea’s human rights violations to demonstrate to legislators that North Korean human rights should be a policy priority as well as to contribute to the international community’s pressure on the North Korean regime to reduce and ultimately cease its human rights abuses.
[1] United Nations Human Rights Council, Report of the Commission of Inquiry on Human Rights in the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, A/HRC/25/63 (7 February 2014), https://documents.un.org/doc/undoc/gen/g14/108/66/pdf/g1410866.pdf
[2] UNHRC, Report of the COI on DPRK, A/HRC/25/63, https://documents.un.org/doc/undoc/gen/g14/108/66/pdf/g1410866.pdf
[3] Congress.gov, “H.R.4011 — North Korean Human Rights Act of 2004 (108th),” https://www.congress.gov/bill/108th-congress/house-bill/4011
[4] House of Commons (Canada), “M-94 — Human Rights in North Korea Act” (motion text; placed on notice by MP Judy Sgro, Sept. 14, 2023), https://www.ourcommons.ca/Members/en/judy-a-sgro%281787%29/motions/12566282
[5] UNHRC, Report of the COI on DPRK, A/HRC/25/63, https://documents.un.org/doc/undoc/gen/g14/108/66/pdf/g1410866.pdf
[6] UNHRC, Report of the COI on DPRK, A/HRC/25/63, https://documents.un.org/doc/undoc/gen/g14/108/66/pdf/g1410866.pdf
[7] UNHRC, Report of the COI on DPRK, A/HRC/25/63, https://documents.un.org/doc/undoc/gen/g14/108/66/pdf/g1410866.pdf
[8] Human Rights Watch, “North Korea’s Unlawful ‘Shoot on Sight’ Orders,” October 28, 2020, https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/10/28/north-koreas-unlawful-shoot-sight-orders
[9] UNHRC, Report of the COI on DPRK, A/HRC/25/63, https://documents.un.org/doc/undoc/gen/g14/108/66/pdf/g1410866.pdf
[10] Human Rights Watch, “A Sense of Terror Stronger than a Bullet”: The Closing of North Korea (2018–2023), March 7, 2024, https://www.hrw.org/report/2024/03/07/a-sense-of-terror/stronger-than-a-bullet-the-closing-of-north-korea-2018%E2%80%932023
[11] HRW, “Shoot on Sight,” Oct. 28, 2020, https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/10/28/north-koreas-unlawful-shoot-sight-orders
[12] UNHRC, Report of the COI on DPRK, A/HRC/25/63, https://documents.un.org/doc/undoc/gen/g14/108/66/pdf/g1410866.pdf
[13] UNHRC, Report of the COI on DPRK, A/HRC/25/63, https://documents.un.org/doc/undoc/gen/g14/108/66/pdf/g1410866.pdf
[14] UNHRC, Report of the COI on DPRK, A/HRC/25/63, https://documents.un.org/doc/undoc/gen/g14/108/66/pdf/g1410866.pdf
[15] UNHRC, Report of the COI on DPRK, A/HRC/25/63, https://documents.un.org/doc/undoc/gen/g14/108/66/pdf/g1410866.pdf
[16] Standing Senate Committee on Human Rights (Canada), The Forgotten Many: Human Rights and North Korean Defectors (June 2016), PDF, https://sencanada.ca/content/sen/committee/421/RIDR/reports/GR_NorthKoreanDefectors_e.pdf
[17] Global Affairs Canada, “Sanctions Related to North Korea (UN Act; SEMA),” consolidated portal, https://www.international.gc.ca/world-monde/international_relations-relations_internationales/sanctions/korea-coree.aspx?lang=eng
[18] Congress.gov, H.R.4011 (108th), https://www.congress.gov/bill/108th-congress/house-bill/4011
[19] Congress.gov, “H.R.4011 — North Korean Human Rights Act of 2004 (108th),” History & Actions (introduced Mar. 23, 2004; House passed July 21, 2004; Senate passed Sept. 28, 2004; signed Oct. 18, 2004), https://www.congress.gov/bill/108th-congress/house-bill/4011/all-actions
[20] Congress.gov, H.R. 4011 (2004) — All Actions (NKHRA 2004 actions), https://www.congress.gov/bill/108th-congress/house-bill/4011/all-actions
[21] North Korean Human Rights Act of 2004, Pub. L. 108–333, 118 Stat. 1287 (Oct. 18, 2004), Statutes at Large PDF, https://www.congress.gov/108/statute/STATUTE-118/STATUTE-118-Pg1287.pdf
[22] North Korean Human Rights Reauthorization Act of 2017, Pub. L. 115–198 (July 20, 2018), text PDF, https://www.congress.gov/115/plaws/publ198/PLAW-115publ198.pdf
[23] Congress.gov, “H.R.3012 — North Korean Human Rights Reauthorization Act of 2023 (118th),” bill text and status (House passage Nov. 20, 2024; no Senate vote before adjournment), https://www.congress.gov/bill/118th-congress/house-bill/3012
[24] Congress.gov, H.R.4011 (108th), https://www.congress.gov/bill/108th-congress/house-bill/4011
[25] Congress.gov, H.R.4011 (108th), https://www.congress.gov/bill/108th-congress/house-bill/4011
[26] Congress.gov, H.R.4011 (108th), https://www.congress.gov/bill/108th-congress/house-bill/4011
[27] Congress.gov, H.R.4011 (108th), https://www.congress.gov/bill/108th-congress/house-bill/4011
[28] Congress.gov, H.R.4011 (108th), https://www.congress.gov/bill/108th-congress/house-bill/4011
[29] Congress.gov, H.R.4011 (108th), https://www.congress.gov/bill/108th-congress/house-bill/4011
[30] Congress.gov, H.R.4011 (108th), https://www.congress.gov/bill/108th-congress/house-bill/4011
[31] Congress.gov, H.R.4011 (108th), https://www.congress.gov/bill/108th-congress/house-bill/4011
[32] Congress.gov, H.R.4011 (108th), https://www.congress.gov/bill/108th-congress/house-bill/4011
[33] Congress.gov, H.R.4011 (108th), https://www.congress.gov/bill/108th-congress/house-bill/4011
[34] Congress.gov, H.R.4011 (108th), https://www.congress.gov/bill/108th-congress/house-bill/4011
[35] Congress.gov, H.R.3012 (118th), https://www.congress.gov/bill/118th-congress/house-bill/3012
[36] House of Commons (Canada), M-94 (Human Rights in North Korea Act), https://www.ourcommons.ca/Members/en/judy-a-sgro%281787%29/motions/12566282
[37] House of Commons (Canada), M-94 (Human Rights in North Korea Act), https://www.ourcommons.ca/Members/en/judy-a-sgro%281787%29/motions/12566282
[38] House of Commons (Canada), M-94 (Human Rights in North Korea Act), https://www.ourcommons.ca/Members/en/judy-a-sgro%281787%29/motions/12566282
[39] House of Commons (Canada), M-94 (Human Rights in North Korea Act), https://www.ourcommons.ca/Members/en/judy-a-sgro%281787%29/motions/12566282
[40] House of Commons (Canada), M-94 (Human Rights in North Korea Act), https://www.ourcommons.ca/Members/en/judy-a-sgro%281787%29/motions/12566282
[41]Congress.gov, H.R.3012 (118th), https://www.congress.gov/bill/118th-congress/house-bill/3012
[42]Congress.gov, H.R.3012 (118th), https://www.congress.gov/bill/118th-congress/house-bill/3012
[43] Library of Parliament (Canada), “How a Bill Becomes Law,” https://learn.parl.ca/understanding-comprendre/en/how-parliament-works/how-a-bill-becomes-a-law/
[44] Library of Parliament (Canada), “How a Bill Becomes Law,” https://learn.parl.ca/understanding-comprendre/en/how-parliament-works/how-a-bill-becomes-a-law/
[45] Library of Parliament (Canada), “How a Bill Becomes Law,” https://learn.parl.ca/understanding-comprendre/en/how-parliament-works/how-a-bill-becomes-a-law/
[46] Library of Parliament (Canada), “How a Bill Becomes Law,” https://learn.parl.ca/understanding-comprendre/en/how-parliament-works/how-a-bill-becomes-a-law/
[47] Robert King, “State Department Annual Human Rights Report for 2024 – Six Months Late and Significantly Cut Back,” The Peninsula (Korea Economic Institute of America), August 22, 2025, https://keia.org/the-peninsula/state-department-annual-human-rights-report-for-2024-six-months-late-and-significantly-cut-back
[48] King, “State Department Annual Human Rights Report for 2024.”
[49] King, “State Department Annual Human Rights Report for 2024.”
[50] King, “State Department Annual Human Rights Report for 2024.”
[51] Reuters, “Voice of America staff put on leave… USAGM terminates grants to RFE/RL and RFA,” March 16, 2025, https://www.reuters.com/business/media-telecom/trump-signs-order-gut-voice-america-other-agencies-2025-03-15
[52] Government of Canada, Global Affairs Canada, “Canada–Democratic People’s Republic of Korea Relations,” last updated Sept. 2, 2022, https://www.international.gc.ca/country-pays/democratic_peoples_republic_korea-republique_populaire_democratique_coree/relations.aspx?lang=eng
[53] Senate (Canada), The Forgotten Many, https://sencanada.ca/content/sen/committee/421/RIDR/reports/GR_NorthKoreanDefectors_e.pdf
[54] Government of Canada, Global Affairs Canada, “Canada–Democratic People’s Republic of Korea Relations,” https://www.international.gc.ca/country-pays/democratic_peoples_republic_korea-republique_populaire_democratique_coree/relations.aspx?lang=eng
[55] CSIS, “Number of North Korean Defectors Drops to Lowest Level in Two Decades” (U.S. has resettled ~220 since 2006), Jan. 27, 2021, https://www.csis.org/analysis/number-north-korean-defectors-drops-lowest-level-two-decades
[56] U.S. GAO, Status of North Korean Refugee Resettlement and Asylum in the United States (archival), https://www.gao.gov/assets/a305972.html
[57] HanVoice (NGO), “North Korean refugees have arrived in Canada” (arrival under private-sponsorship pilot), Aug. 2024 blog, https://hanvoice.ca/blog/refugees
[58] OFAC, “North Korea Sanctions Regulations—FAQs,” https://ofac.treasury.gov/faqs/topic/1556
[59] OFAC, “North Korea Sanctions Regulations—FAQs,” https://ofac.treasury.gov/faqs/topic/1556
[60] Jennifer Kates, Anna Rouw, and Stephanie Oum, “U.S. Foreign Aid Freeze & Dissolution of USAID: Timeline of Events,” KFF (Kaiser Family Foundation), September 10, 2025, https://www.kff.org/global-health-policy/u-s-foreign-aid-freeze-dissolution-of-usaid-timeline-of-events
[61] Government of Canada, “Canada–DPRK Relations,” humanitarian assistance section, https://www.international.gc.ca/country-pays/democratic_peoples_republic_korea-republique_populaire_democratique_coree/relations.aspx?lang=eng
[62] Government of Canada, “Canada–DPRK Relations,” https://www.international.gc.ca/country-pays/democratic_peoples_republic_korea-republique_populaire_democratique_coree/relations.aspx?lang=eng
[63] Government of Canada, “Canada–DPRK Relations,” https://www.international.gc.ca/country-pays/democratic_peoples_republic_korea-republique_populaire_democratique_coree/relations.aspx?lang=eng
[64] Reuters, “Russia blocks renewal of North Korea sanctions monitors,” March 28, 2024, https://www.reuters.com/world/russia-blocks-renewal-north-korea-sanctions-monitors-2024-03-28/
[65] BBC News, “North Korea Confirms It Sent Troops to Fight for Russia in Ukraine War,” April 27, 2025, https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/ckg25wxvpy2o
[66] UN OHCHR (Seoul), “China must not forcibly repatriate North Korean escapees: UN experts,” October 17, 2023, https://seoul.ohchr.org/en/node/543
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